Temporal Fossa Size
This character is used to measure independently the relative degree of temporalis development, regardless of parietal temporal bone size. It is distinct from sagittal crest development, which will be correlated directly with the size of these bones, relative to muscle development. For example, a small cranium with moderate to strong temporalis development e.g., species of P. robustus will require the formation of a temporal crest to help expand the attachment space requirements of the...
The Earliest Tool Users and Toolmakers and Early Hominin Behavior
Recognizable stone tools first appear in the archaeological record around 2.5 Ma in east Africa they are associated with two hominin groups, Paranthropus and early Homo see Susman, 1988 Schick amp Toth, 1993 Kimbel et al., 1997 Deacon amp Deacon, 1999 Pickering, 2001 Figure 4.8 . These early stone tools are referred to as the Oldowan industry because they were first recognized from localities within Olduvai Gorge. So far the earliest stone tools are those found at the Gona and Bouri sites,...
Palate Prognathism Relative to Sellion
This is calculated as an index of palate length divided by plate protrusion relative to sellion as defined by Rak 1983 see his Plate 34 and Table 3 . A prognathic premaxilla is defined by an index greater than 0.57 intermediate prognathism is between 0.30 and 0.57, and weak prognathism is an index less than 0.30. The mean indices for hominin taxa have been taken from Rak 1983 . All hominin and extant African ape allocations follow Strait et al. 1997 and Strait amp Grine 2001 , except for...
The Rise of Homo heidelbergensis
The earliest widely accepted appearance of H. heidelbergensis is around 600,000 years ago, as represented by the Bodo skull from Ethiopia Figure 7.2 . There appears to be a continuum of this African deme, to at least 260,000 years ago Gr n et al., 1996 , when the South African Florisbad specimen begins to show real changes, or perhaps to even later if one accepts that the Jebel Irhoud specimens from Morocco represent members of this species Howell, 1998 F.H. Smith, 2002 which we decidedly do...
Evolution of the Miocene Great Apes
The small-bodied ape ran across the top of a tree branch, away from the anger of the dominant male of the group. In haste to get away, however, it had underestimated the thickness and strength of the branch, which gave way. The ape fell to the ground, breaking a forelimb it yelled in pain. Above, the other apes started a commotion and ran across the branches in anxious movements. The yelling would surely bring carnivores to the small patch of tree cover, which was an island of refuge in the...
The Emergence of Kenyanthropus and Australopithecus
Kenyanthropus platyops originates from geological deposits dating to around 3.5 million years ago M.G. Leakey et al., 2001 . Its discovery so recently, with its unique anatomical features so unexpected, sent shockwaves through the anthropological world and started a flurry of speculation. Indeed, recently T.D. White 2003 has suggested that the cranium of the type specimen of Kenyanthropus platyops specimen KNM-WT 40000 may actually represent a specimen of Praeanthropus, for he suggests that the...
Glenoid Fossa Depth
Four character states are defined deep, variable, intermediate between deep and shallow , and a shallow fossa. The depth of the glenoid process is clearly associated with the requirements of the masticatory apparatus temporomandibular joint and is of functional significance. This is also aligned to developmental processes associated with osteoclast osteoblast activity and bone drift, which will affect mandibular and lower facial form Enlow amp Hans, 1996 . This character is measured as an index...
Canine Fossa Development
A canine fossa is defined by a distinct depression or hollow of the bone table posterior to the canine within the lateral maxillary wall. In the extant hominids it is usually associated with a developed transverse buttress, located immediately above the infraorbital foramen see Rak, 1983 . While this feature in some taxa may be associated with sexual dimorphism i.e., greater development in males , there is evidence that it can also be well defined in extant hominid females personal observation...
Info Yoq
Sahelanthropus K. platyops K. rudolfensis H. habilis H. ergaster H. sapiens Australopithecus P. walkeri P. boisei P. robustus Garhi Figure 5.3 Majority-rule typology, two steps beyond consensus see text for details . 3 steps i.e., 390 , resulting in the tree shown in Figure 5.4, from 2,096 possible trees. This tree confirms the previous topologies, the only exception being that Praeanthropus is now shown to share a last common ancestor with Sahelanthropus, the garhi group, and more derived...
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Digastric Muscle Insertion
The digastric fossa is the site of origin for the digastric muscle. This muscle is responsible for raising the hyoid bone as well as the opening action of the mandible Aiello amp Dean, 1990 . As such, it is of functional significance, especially in terms of the masticatory apparatus. A broad and shallow fossa is observed in Pongo which is very broad , Gorilla, Pan, Praeanthropus, Australopithecus, and P boisei 0 . A deep and narrow notch is observed in Ardipithecus, K. platyops, P. robustus, H....
Info Ycv
Figure 5.10 Bootstrap analysis, 1,000 replications of 52 characters see text for details . Figure 5.10 Bootstrap analysis, 1,000 replications of 52 characters see text for details . bridge between the more primitive Pliocene hominid represented by Ardipithecus and the anamensis group and the more derived Plio Pleistocene hominins represented by Paranthropus, Australopithecus, Kenyanthropus, and Homo. There are three courses that could be adopted in interpreting these results in terms of...
Incisor Alveoli Prognathism
This character is defined by the prognathism of the incisor complex relative to the bi-canine line this is distinct from the previous character subnasal prognathism-angle because this character measures the degree of anterior migration of the incisor complex, while the previous character measures degree of subnasal prognathism, relative to height of the nasal clivus. As such, this feature helps measure degrees of incisor crowding as well as the anterior or posterior migration of the incisor...
Inferior Mandibular Transverse Torus
A developed inferior transverse torus helps withstand stresses associated with mastication, related to medial and lateral wishboning of the mandible, as well as increasing resistance to dorsoventral shear Hylander, 1984, 1988 Hylander amp Johnson, 1994 Hylander et al, 2000 . This character is distinct from the previous character, because a deep symphysis may or may not have a developed inferior transverse torus. Thus, there is no clear association between these features, even though they both...
Infraorbital Foramenina Location
This character is likely of developmental interest in terms of its inferior migration and implications for differential patterns in the hominin capsular system. Three states are recognized. The infraorbital foramen is located within the top 50 of the malar 0 , observed in Pongo, Gorilla, Pan, Praeanthropus, H. habilis, H. ergaster, and H. sapiens. Also, Andrews amp Walker 1976 suggest that the infraorbital foramen in Kenyapithecus specimen KNM-FT 46 must have been high set, given that it, and...
The Original Out of Africa
The earliest fossil hominins so far found outside of the African continent are from Dmanisi, in Georgia. Archaeologists digging a medieval site found the first specimen, a mandible, in association with Oldowan-like tools it was dated to between 1.96 and 1.77 Ma and allocated to H. erectus Gabunia amp Vekua, 1995 . Recently three skulls have been discovered from the same locality, and most now consider them to represent members of a European deme of H. ergaster Gabunia et al., 2000a Vekua et...
Interorbital Breadth
The character is generated from metric data and is defined by an index of mid-interorbital breadth divided by orbital height see earlier . A narrow interorbital has often been argued to by a synapomorphy of the Ponginae and is associated with patterns of airorynchy see Shea, 1985, 1988 Andrews, 1992 Cameron, 2002 . As such, this character is of developmental and phylogenetic interest. The extant hominid mean is 0.45 n 123 , with one standard deviation of 0.11. Thus, the intermediate range is...
Early Hominin Social Dynamics
Three main archaeological interpretations of Plio- Pleistocene hominid in behavior have been proposed. While the models emphasize the behavioral repertoire of early Homo for they focus on stone tool technologies and their distribution over the landscape they are probably relevant to the behavioral features of the australopithecines too. The first was proposed by the Harvard archaeologist Glynn Isaac, who became famous for his archaeological excavations and interpretations of the localities...
Mandibular Extramolar Sulcus Width
This feature has been related to a more parabolic shape in the dental arcade, resulting in an M3 placed more medially then the M2, and will result in a large space between the M3 and the ramus, which is said to be essential in accommodating transverse movements of the M3, both of which lie posterior to the ramus see Aiello amp Dean, 1990 . The character state definitions and most species allocations as provided by Strait et al. 1997 and Strait and Grine 2001 are followed here, with only one...
Subnasal Length
This is a chord distance from nasospinale to prosthion, so it is not a measure of subnasal prognathism. Subnasal prognathism is measured in character 49. Subnasal length is defined as an index against orbital height. The mean extant hominid value for this index is 0.72, with 1 standard deviation of 0.13. Thus, an intermediate range is defined by values falling between 0.59 and 0.85. Data for fossil hominins has been taken from B.A. Wood 1991 , while all other values have been constructed from...
Inferior Orbital Margin
This feature helps define the depth of the face Cameron, 1997a . It is defined by the horizontal position of the inferior orbital margins against the superior nasal aperture margin viewed anteriorly . Three states are recognized. The first is defined by inferior orbital margins that are positioned well above the superior nasal aperture margin, indicating a tall mid-face 0 next is the intermediate condition 1 and finally, the inferior orbital margins are aligned to or below the superior nasal...
The Earliest Members of the Neanderthal Lineage
Another group of mainly European specimens, which some believe represent the basal stock from which the Neanderthal ultimately evolved, have been allocated to a species H. steinheimensis for the moment we partly following Howell, 1998 will use this name. This species is best represented by its type specimen, the Steinheim skull near Stuttgart in Germany Figure 7.6 , the Sima de los Huesos specimens from Atapuerca in northern Spain, the Swanscombe cranium from England, and the Narmada cranium...
The First African Exodus The Emergence of Early Homo in Europe and Asia
The sabertooth big cat had been dead for only a few minutes and had not yet attracted attention from the roaming scavengers of the sky and savanna plains. Quietly the hominin approached the cat. It was most unusual to be the first on the scene of such a prize, a large cache of fresh meat. Looking around she picked up a number of large volcanic rock fragments and begun to hammer out a number of crude but very sharp flakes. She looked around to make sure that no other carnivores were approaching....
External Cranial Base Flexion
This feature is developmentally significant because it relates to a number of mosaic influences that will affect a number of morphological patterns, including facial orientation, neuro-orbital disjunction, postorbital constriction and thus indirectly influencing the development of the tempo-ralis through the size of the temporal fossae , and development of the supraorbital torus, to mention just a few see main text for further details . Given the usually poor preservation of the phenotypic...
MidFacialUpper Facial Breadth
This is defined by an index of bijugal bi-frontomalare temporale, using the same method described for character 2, to construct the character states. This feature is distinct from character 44, because it describes the breadth of the upper face relative to the mid-face, while the previous character measures the relative breadth of the upper face between hominid taxa. This feature is likely to be of developmental and functional interest because it relates to musculature development e.g.,...
Foramen Magnum Shape
Unlike Strait et al. 1997 , only two character states are recognized oval round 0 and heart shaped 1 . Strait et al. 1997 and Strait and Grine 2001 recognize a variable state, as described for H. ergaster, because the sub-adult specimen KNM-WT 15000 is said to have a heart-shaped foramen Walker et al., 1986 , while adult specimens of this same species, KNM-ER 3733 and KNM-ER 3883, have an oval foramen. Because of the specimens sub-adult status, the condition observed in KNM-WT 15000 is not...
Inferred Phylogenetic Relationships
The analyses conducted here consistently support certain phylogenetic relationships. The most consistent result is that the australopithecines are paraphyletic. Next, Australopithecus africanus is more derived in the Kenyapithecus Dryopithecus Graecopithecus Pongo Gorilla Pan Sahelanthropus Ardipithecus Anamensis Praeanthropus K. platyops K. rudolfensis H. habilis H. ergaster H. sapiens Australopithecus P. walkeri P. boisei P. robustus Garhi Figure 5.9 Majority-rule typology, three extra steps...
Hollowing at the Mental Foramen
This feature is clearly the result of differential patterns of bone growth e.g., increased osteoblast activity in the region of the foramen and or increased osteoblast activity anterior to it and is likely associated with mandibular robusticity requirements. The same character definitions and character state allocations provided by Strait et al. 1997 and Strait and Grine 2001 are followed for the fossil hominins. The primitive character state is seen in Kenyapithecus, Dryopithecus,...
Postglenoid Process Development
This feature is associated with the requirements of the masticatory apparatus. While it might be thought that this feature should be integrated with glenoid fossa depth, this is not the case, for the depth of the fossa and the development of the process are clearly not coupled. For example, both Gorilla and Pan have a similar development of the postglenoid process large and anteriorly set , yet while Gorilla has intermediate depth of the glenoid fossa, it is shallow in Pan. Differential...
Glabella Development
Dryopithecus Begun, 1992, 1994 Kordos amp Begun, 1997 and Pan both have limited or intermediate inflation of their glabella 0 . While Brunet et al. 2002 state that glabella in Sahelanthropus is present, they give no description. Thus, this feature cannot be coded for this genus with any degree of certainty. Graecopithecus de Bonis et al., 1990 de Bonis amp Koufos, 1993 has a sunken glabella 1 , while glabella in Pongo cannot be defined 2 . Gorilla, species within Paranthropus, and K....
The Grisly Folk The Emergence of the Neanderthals
Most of the group had left the cave earlier that day. Only one elderly male was left behind. In his youth he had been attacked by a saber-tooth when part of a hunting group with the help of his clan he had just managed to survive, his right arm torn off, his right leg crippled, his left eye put out as he fell heavily in the attack. He was now a cripple and depended on the generosity of his group to survive. It was midafternoon when the valley and the surrounding region were rocked by a massive...
Anterior Nasal Pillars
Rak 1983 has discussed this feature extensively. He associates this feature with P. robustus, arguing that it evolved as a functional response to help absorb stresses associated with the anterior dental complex. This feature, however, should not be confused with canine jugum, which is merely the result of a large robust canine. A true nasal pillar is composed of a column-like buttress that extends well beyond the canine root, helping to define the lateral nasal aperture borders Rak, 1983 . Only...
Info Lhi
the other Eurasian hominid Griphopithecus also with thick molar enamel , which first appears in Turkey around this time Heizmann amp Begun, 2001 Andrews et al., 1996 . Dryopithecus, however, does not appear in the fossil record of Europe until around 12.5 Ma Andrews et al., 1996 Andrews amp Bernor, 1999 Begun, 2001 . Begun 2001 suggests that either Kenyapithecus from Fort Ternan Kenya or Griphopithecus from Turkey represent the likely ancestral ape that gave rise to Dryopithecus, and he...
Temporal Squama Pneumatization
The primitive character state for this feature is for an extensively pneuma-tized temporal Sherwood, 1999 . As defined by both Strait et al. 1997 and Sherwood 1999 , pneumatization of the temporal squama is associated with the development of pneumatic tracts extending to the squamosal suture, thickening the squamous temporal squamous antrum . When squa-mous antrum is absent, the temporal bone is not considered pneumatized. The temporal squama is inflated 0 in Dryopithecus Kordos amp Begun, 1997...
Homo antecessor
The earliest non-ergaster georgicus erectus hominins in Europe are the specimens from Gran Dolina Cave, Level TD-6, in the Atapuerca Hills of northern Spain, allocated to their own species, Homo antecessor Berm dez de Castro et al., 1997 and dating to around 780,000 years ago Par s amp P rez-Gonz lez, 1995 Falgueres, 1999 Figure 7.1 . Berm dez de Castro et al. 1997 argue that the new species evolved from H. ergaster and represents the likely stem species that gave rise to the Neanderthal...
Palate Thickness
This character measures the absolute thickness of the palate posterior to the incisive fossa. Character states and taxa allocations follow Strait et al. 1997 and Strait 2001 . A thin palate represents the primitive condition that is under 7 mm 0 a thick palate is observed only in Paranthropus species that is over 7 mm 1 see also McCollum, 1997 . Even though no data are available for Kenyanthropus, Leakey et al. 2001 describe the palate roof as being thin, so it is allocated as such.
Nuchal Plane Orientation
This feature will obviously be affected by the development of the nuchal muscles, including the rectus capitis posterior major and minor and the obliquus capitis superior. These muscles are involved in head rotation and elevation. As in the inflation of the mastoid, this character may also be influenced by differential patterns of locomotion see earlier . Of secondary importance in the development of this feature will be the degree pattern of cranial base angulation. Following Kimbel et al....
Male Sagittal Crest Development
The formation of a sagittal crest is clearly associated with masticatory considerations related to temporalis development relative to cranial size. In contrast with Skelton et al. 1986 , Skelton and McHenry 1992 suggest phenotypic features associated with function should not automatically be dismissed as phylogenetically informative, given the concept of phylogenetic niche conservatism see main text . While some may consider character 5 to be correlated with this character, an examination of...
Inferior Orbital Margin Is Rounded Laterally
The inferior orbital margin is considered either rounded laterally or not rounded that is, the inferolateral orbital margin is blunted, with a shallow bend posteriorly into the orbit. The overall significance of this feature in terms of function, development, and phylogeny remains obscure. But given that Strait et al. 1997 and Strait and Grine 2001 have included it in their detailed studies, this feature is retained here. Rounded corners in the taxa preserving this region are present in...
Supraorbital Torus Form
The condition in Dryopithecus Begun, 1992, 1995 Moya-Sola amp Kohler, 1993 , Kenyanthropus M.G. Leakey et al., 2001 , Australopithecus Rak, 1983 , the garhi group Asfaw et al., 1999 , H. habilis Tobias, 1991 , K. rudolfensis, and H. ergaster Wood, 1991 is developed laterally, but is weaker medially 0 . The supraorbital torus in Graecopithecus specimen XIR-1 is developed, but not bridge-like thus, it has a developed torus above each orbit 1 de Bonis et al., 1990 de Bonis amp Koufos, 1993 Dean...
Supraorbital Torus Thickness
This feature is distinct from supraorbital torus form because it measures the thickness of the torus from its midpoint inferosuperior chord distance . This value is divided by orbital height to give an index value. The extant hominoid mean of 0.22 and one standard deviation of 0.07 gives an intermediate range of 0.15-0.29. Data for the extant and fossil Miocene homi-noids is unpublished data held by Cameron unless stated otherwise , while all data of the fossil hominins has been calculated from...
Mandibular Mental Foramen Opening
This character is retained in this analysis because it relates to the vascular system and is thus likely to be of developmental and functional interest. The same character states and species allocations provided by Strait et al. 1997 have been retained. Four states are recognized. The primitive condition is defined by the foramen opening anterosuperiorly 0 as seen in Kenyapithecus Andrews amp Walker, 1976 , Pan, and Ardipithecus Strait amp Grine, 2001 . This is followed by some intra-species...
Mandibular Symphysis Robusticity BreadthHeight
This feature measures the general robusticity of the mandibular symph-ysis. That is, a high index means the symphysis is robust, while a lower index means it is more gracile. As suggested by Hylander 1984, 1988 , Hylander and Johnson 1994 , and Hylander et al. 2000 , the thickness of the symphysis has important implications associated with wishboning and its impact on the symphyseal region. All data for the fossil hominins have been taken from B.A. Wood 1991 , and data for the extant hominids...
Subnasal Prognathism Nasal Clivus
This character has been taken from M.G. Leakey et al. 2001 . Their Figure 3 indicates three patterns of subnasal prognathism as measured by the angulation of the nasal clivus prosthion-nasospinale . This character is of interest not only because it relates to subnasal prognathism, but this itself is associated with the requirements of the anterior dentition as well as palate depth, which may be associated with differential patterns of cranial base flexure see D.E. Lieberman et al., 2001 ....
Diagonal Length of the Malar
Malar length is defined as an index of orbitale-zygomaxillare divided by orbital height. The mean for the extant hominids is 1.05, with one standard deviation of 0.15 n 122 specimens . Thus, the intermediate range falls between 0.90 and 1.20. All data for the fossil hominins was taken from B.A. Wood 1991 . The minimum extant hominid value is 0.75 and the maximum value is 1.56. A long malar 0 is observed in P. walkeri specimen KNM-WT 17000 with an index of 1.23, P. boisei with a mean index of...
The Gracile and Robust Australians of the Pleistocene and Holocene
There is no morphological evidence to support a Chinese origin for the Pleistocene Australians e.g., Mungo and Keilor specimens or Indonesians e.g., Wajak cranium . And let us remember that the very Keilor specimen that is said by Thorne 1976 to be an important part of the gracile population is actually shown by Thorne and Wilson 1977 to be within the modern comparative Murray Valley population in shape, but larger Indeed, the only truly gracile Australian specimen is LM 1. A single specimen...
Supraglenoid Gutter Development
This feature is defined by an index of supraglenoid gutter width divided by bi-supramastoid breadth. Pongo has a mean index of 19.8 n 3 , Gorilla has a mean of 28.3 n 3 , and Pan has a mean of 19.4 n 2 . Three states are recognized here. The first is defined as wide 0 in Gorilla and P walkeri with an index of 27.9 an intermediate stage 1 is defined by Pongo, Pan, P. robustus SK 48 24.2 , and P boisei KNM-ER 406 22.9, KNM-ER 732 21.4, and OH 5 24.3 . A narrow gutter 2 defines Australopithecus...
Info Dbj
Figure 10.9 Typical large core tool tradition top common in Australia until around 5,000 years ago, which was largely replaced by the Australian small-tool tradition bottom . From P.J. White and O'Connell 1982 . human mtDNA, just as would be expected from the nonrecombining nature of mtDNA Adcock et al., 2001 Relethford, 2001 . For the describers it suggests the extinction of a whole race. This seems to us a rather extravagant interpretation, depending as it does on a one-to-one linking between...
Interpretations of the Australian Paleoanthropological Evidence
Some of the Mungo individuals represent the oldest Australian human fossils so far discovered. It is one of these, Lake Mungo 3 LM 3 Figure 10.1 , that has now been dated at either 60,000 years ago Thorne et al., 1999 or 40,000 years ago Bowler et al., 2003 . They are described as having a high frontal and relatively thin cranial walls. The cranium is spherical in shape, the frontal lacks much of a supraorbital torus, and the face is relatively flat and lies immediately below the frontal Webb,...
The Emergence of Sahelanthropus Orrorin and the Lothagam Hominids
The recent significant discovery and description of Sahelanthropus tchadensis from Chad by a joint French and Chadian paleoanthropological team, dating to between 6 and 7 million years ago Brunet et al., 2002 Vignaud et al., 2002 see also B.A. Wood, 2002 , has done much to refocus our attention on the divergences of the hominins from other hominids. One of the key differences of the hominins from most other hominids is the development of a primitive form of bipedal locomotion, which would...