INTECH Technologies

Chapter Spirits of the Otherworld Ghosts and Vampires Mythology

Tue, 21 Feb 2012 15:36:36 GMT

Ghosts 1 The word alone creates images of translucent and flowing spirits, spirits that have either failed to realize that they are no longer physically alive or who intend to exact revenge from those left living. Ghosts are feared the world over, and have been since humans began to recognize realities and dimensions outside of the present one. Are they creations of our own minds Native American lore is filled with legends about ghosts and the Other-world that they inhabit. Native Americans are...

The Seventh Extinction DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 20 Feb 2012 20:13:47 GMT

As strange as it may sound, we could actually be living in the middle of a mass extinction right now. In recent times, there have been no colossal outpourings of lava, nor have there been any huge asteroid impacts, so what's the cause of this, the seventh, mass extinction We are. Humans almost certainly contributed to the demise of some of the Pleistocene animals, some of which appear in this book. More recently, around 780 species have become extinct since 1500, but as the vast majority of...

Info Ied Thermodynamics

Sun, 19 Feb 2012 01:23:27 GMT

male fraction salt, xs Fig. 8.16 The NaCl HiO phase diagram On the top of the diagram is a large single-phase region entitled liquid sol'n the common name is brine. On the left-hand ordinate is pure ice and the right hand ordinate x 1, not shown is pure salt. The shaded zone in Fig. 8.16 is the only single-phase solid region in the diagram. It is a compound with the water-to-salt mole ratio denoted by n. It is shown as the region is labeled NaCl H2O x, with x varying from the lower phase...

Bryozoan morphology FossilClassification

Sun, 05 Feb 2012 14:53:26 GMT

The hard parts of an individual zooid are called the zooecium plural zooecia , and the skeletal colony the zoarium Fig. 5.2 . The zooecia of stenolaemates are tube shaped and are often studied in thin section. In branching colonies, the mature parts of the zooecia usually grow at a high angle to the axis of colony growth. Zooecia may change in shape as they grow. They share common skeletal walls with adjacent zooids. In cross-section these tubes can be identified along with the shared hard...

The German police and fossil seizures FossilIndustry

Tue, 31 Jan 2012 18:16:51 GMT

Wednesday 12 September. We visit Chief Superintendent Eduard Amrien, a member of the environmental division for the state region. His jurisdiction spreads over the whole country on matters of fauna, flora, fossils or other environmental issues. Steve chatted with Amrien in German, explaining that he too was a law enforcement officer, a specialist in fossil-related crime. Amrien seemed very surprised that fossil-related crime in the USA was serious enough to warrant its own specialist policeman....

The Chemical Potential Thermodynamics

Thu, 26 Jan 2012 08:07:17 GMT

The thermodynamic terms heat and work can be viewed as the product of a capacity factor or quantity of something and a difference in a potential. Table 7.1 lists several examples of this breakdown of heat work expressions for mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical processes. Although rate processes are not within the purview of thermodynamics, they involve the same potentials as those responsible for producing heat or work. The basic rate laws are of the form flux coefficient x potential...

Tetrapod evolution and climate change FossilClassification

Wed, 25 Jan 2012 15:31:34 GMT

It is tempting to think of climate change as a recent phenomenon. However, in some ways the only predictable thing about climate is the certainty of change. There have been at least four major glaciations during the Phanerozoic icehouse periods and in between there is usually little or no evidence for permanent ice existing at the poles these are called greenhouse periods . In addition to climatic oscillations, there have been unique changes caused by tectonics or by biological evolution. These...

The Garden of Ediacara 1 LostWorld

Thu, 19 Jan 2012 23:26:54 GMT

Copyright 1998 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McMenamin, Mark A. The garden of Ediacara discovering the first complex life Mark A. S. McMenamin. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Casebound editions of Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. Printed in the United States of America c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 p 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Some images in the original version of...

A complex phase diagram ironuranium Thermodynamics

Thu, 12 Jan 2012 22:26:14 GMT

Eutectic features often appear in parts of more complex phase diagrams, as shown in the iron-uranium diagram of Fig. 8.14. If the diagram is divided into three parts at 1 3 and 6 7 mole fraction uranium, the result is two simple eutectic diagrams and a more complex diagram. The Fe-rich side resembles Fig. 8.11 with two added features. The first is the number of phases of the pure components. The left hand ordinate of Fig. 8.14 makes provision for three crystallographic modifications of iron The...

Selected Bibliography DisappearedSpecies

Wed, 11 Jan 2012 21:38:00 GMT

Agenbroad, L. D., and J. I. Mead. The Hot Springs Mammoth Site A Decade of Field and Laboratory Research in Paleontology, Geology, and Paleoecology. Hot Springs, SD The Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, South Dakota, 1994. Agust , J., and M. Ant n. Mammoths, Sabertooths, and Hominids 65 Million Years of Mammalian Evolution in Europe. New York Columbia University Press, 2005. Anderson, A. Prodigious Birds Moas and Moa-Hunting in New Zealand. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2003. Archer, M., S....

Seedbearing plants angiosperms FossilClassification

Mon, 09 Jan 2012 16:18:02 GMT

Angiosperms are the most diverse and widespread group of living plants Fig. 12.13 . Leaf impressions of angiosperm-like plants are known from the Triassic. The first true angiosperm fossils are from the Cretaceous Fig. 12.14 . During this period angiosperms diversified rapidly, particularly in low latitudes, and dominated most habitats by the end of the Cretaceous. Paralleling the rise of the angiosperms, spore-bearing plants and gymnosperms declined through the Cretaceous. Abundance and...

The Dinosaur Dealers FossilIndustry

Fri, 06 Jan 2012 02:18:40 GMT

Copyright Dr John Long, Alley Kat Productions Pty Ltd, Electric Pictures Pty Ltd, Australian Film Finance Corporation Limited, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 the Act allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 of this book,...

Ethological behavioral classification FossilClassification

Mon, 02 Jan 2012 19:53:55 GMT

This fundamental classification is founded on the supposed or inferred behavioral characteristics represented by the trace fossils Table 14.1 . The most important categories relate to feeding, dwelling, and locomotion. As the units are divided on the basis of activity there maybe some overlap between them if the organism performed more than one behavior for example, feeding and crawling at the same time. Also, different parts of the trace fossil structure may fall into different categories....

Effect of Pressure on GasPhase Chemical Equilibria Thermodynamics

Sun, 25 Dec 2011 13:39:49 GMT

Instead of partial pressures, mixture compositions are often more conveniently expressed in terms of the mole fractions of the species present, as in the previous example. The following formulation illustrates how total pressure affects the equilibrium composition. Using Dalton's Rule Eq 7.3 , pi where xi is the mole fraction of species i and p is the total pressure, Eq 9.21 becomes K p reactants products k Products 9 24 Although KP is a function of temperature only, the equilibrium constant in...

Nonideal Liquid and Solid Solutions Thermodynamics

Wed, 21 Dec 2011 21:40:29 GMT

Although gas mixtures can for most purposes be treated as ideal, liquid and solid solutions are generally significantly nonideal. The strong intermolecular interactions that are responsible for the existence of pure condensed phases are also the source of their deviations from ideality when mixed in solutions. A binary solution of A and B is ideal if the average of the A-A and B-B intermolecular forces is just equal to the strength of the A-B interaction Ref. 1 contains a thorough explanation...

AS Qh Ql Z Thermodynamics

Mon, 19 Dec 2011 17:14:40 GMT

thermal reservoirs r-p t cno ino This portion assumes that the temperature of cooling water for the condenser is 25oC and the high-temperature supply from the boiler steam generator is 320oC Substituting the component entropy gains into Eq 4.14 gives the entropy production per kg of water circulated AStot 0 0.01 0.52 2.53 3.06 kJ kg-K The largest contribution is due to heat transfer over non-zero temperature differences between the cycle components and their associated thermal reservoirs. The...

Problems for Chapter Thermodynamics

Mon, 19 Dec 2011 02:48:06 GMT

10.1 The solid-state electrochemical cell NbO Nb Ru electrolyte Ta2 O5 Ta consists on the right of a Ta Ta2O5 couple that produces a fixed electrode potential and on the left a half cell containing a mixture of NbO and Nb dissolved in ruthenium. Ru is inert electrochemically and serves only to dilute the active niobium metal component. The cell operates at 1000 K with various mole fractions of Nb dissolved in ruthenium. For the overall cell reaction NbO Ta Nb 1 Ta2O5 , the standard free energy...

Reactive gas in contact with a reactive metal Thermodynamics

Fri, 16 Dec 2011 03:59:05 GMT

The values of the 02 pressure required for coexistence of M and M02 are usually quite small, because, except for the noble metals, oxides are much more stable than the elemental metals. Reaction 9.3 releases substantial heat, so AHo is large and negative. This term dominates AGo, which is also large and negative. For instance, if AGo -200 kJ mole at 1000 K, Eq 9.33a gives p0 3.6x10-11 atm. From practical considerations, such a low pressure of 02 is difficult to produce and control in a process...

Chapter Giants Mythology

Thu, 15 Dec 2011 23:20:08 GMT

Early natural historian Lieutenant Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith wrote in 1848, There were, in early antiquity, nations, tribes, and families, existing in nearly every part of the earth, whose origin and affinities appear so exceedingly obscure, that they have been transferred from physical realities to poetical mythology.1 One of these nations or tribes is that of the Giants. In Greek mythology, the giant Titans were the offspring of Gaia, the earth goddess, and Uranus the sky god. The Titans...

Phase Separation Thermodynamics

Thu, 15 Dec 2011 17:16:39 GMT

The single-phase solid and liquid phase regions in Fig. 8.3 show no structure because the A-B solutions were assumed to be ideal. However, if the components exhibit positive deviations from ideality i.e., if the A-B molecular interaction is weaker than the average of the A-A and the B-B interactions , the single-phase solutions separate into two distinct phases, either both liquid or both solid. The system in which phase separation has 3 See Sect. 2.6 for application of the lever rule in...

Binary phase diagrams analytical construction Thermodynamics

Wed, 14 Dec 2011 08:05:29 GMT

Binary phase diagrams depict the stable condensed phase or phases formed by a two-component system as a function of temperature and overall composition. The ordinate of a phase diagram is the temperature and the overall composition is the abscissa1. The phase rule Eq 1.21 for a two component system permits F 4 - P degrees of freedom for a two-component system. Since the diagrams deal only with condensed phases, they are minimally affected by total pressure2. Ignoring the total pressure reduces...

Paleoceneeocene Climate And Flora Age of Mammals

Sat, 10 Dec 2011 11:34:41 GMT

The world of the Paleocene and Eocene was very different from that of today. It was much warmer and more equable during most of that interval than at any other time during the Cenozoic Wing and Greenwood, 1993 . Temperatures varied little seasonally or latitudinally, mid-latitudes were largely frost-free, and there were no polar ice caps. Conditions were generally wet or humid. A paleotemperature curve reconstructed from deep-sea oxygen isotope records Zachos et al., 2001 shows that early...

Methane Gas Thermodynamics

Wed, 07 Dec 2011 21:57:59 GMT

8. . .7 . .71 9.83 . 11.20 12.519 13.767 14.938 16.026 17.036 17.959 18.79 19.551 0.219 '0. 02 299 Til 036 276 lt 3 0 - 17. 861. -16.950 -15.897 14. II -13.396 -8.757 -7.007 -5. 168 -3. 250 -1.261 . 791 897 5. 548 36 9.452 11.68 . 55 .7.175 9.517 51.476 6 0.849 6 . . . 63.983 65.-.57 64.872 68. 231 69.535 70. 86 71.964 73.131 -31. 1 .S -31.230 -35.819 - lt 0.656 - .5.717 -50.987 -56.1.53 -62.107 -67.939 -73.941 -80. lOf -86. .28 -92.901 -99.518 -106.273 -113.162 -120.179 -127.318 -13 57 .

A case of stolen Scottish fossils FossilIndustry

Wed, 07 Dec 2011 05:38:51 GMT

31 October 2000. Silurian fish and invertebrate fossils from Scotland are stolen from a protected site, and sold to a museum in Germany. Scottish Natural Heritage are alerted in February 2001 after an academic reports seeing the 430-million-year-old remains in a museum in Berlin. A team of Scottish Natural Heritage geologists decided to visit the Humboldt University Museum in Berlin, to discuss the possible return of the rare fossils. Jamoytius kerwoodi, an anaspid one of the eel-like jawless...

Eutectic Phase Diagram Thermodynamics

Tue, 06 Dec 2011 09:14:27 GMT

The binary systems treated in the preceding sections were either ideal melting-solidification or deviated positively from ideality according to regular solution theory phase separation . These simple types are rarely found in real binary systems. First, there may be more than one solid phase, each with a distinct crystal structure, just as there are in pure substances see Sect. 5.6 . Second, the liquid phase and the solid phase s are generally nonideal. The extent of deviation from ideality is...

Chapter An Overview of the Little People in Native America Mythology

Mon, 05 Dec 2011 00:09:40 GMT

When we think of Fairy lore, many of us in the US naturally think of Ireland. However, Fairies appear in the folklore of most every culture and on every continent. The similarities are striking and some have suggested that a common source memory exists or existed widely among people at one time. John Rhys advanced this theory at the beginning of the 20th century. Rhys thought that the lore of the Fairy were ancient stories of the original inhabitants of Britain. They were called the Corannians...

The Ancient Mass Extinctions And Evolution DisappearedSpecies

Sat, 03 Dec 2011 13:48:21 GMT

For the organisms that experience them, cataclysmic events bring death and devastation, but mass extinctions have their positive side, too. Indeed, if it wasn't for mass extinction, we would not be here. Mass extinctions wipe the biological slate clean and leave the door open to organisms that have been kept in the shade. If we travel back in time, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction created an opportunity for the dinosaurs to rise to dominance, following the demise of the large synapsids,...

Criterion of Chemical Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Sat, 03 Dec 2011 06:12:40 GMT

As in any system constrained to constant temperature and pressure, the equilibrium of a chemical reaction is attained when the free energy is a minimum. Specifically, this means that dG 0, where the differential of G is with respect to the composition of the mixture. In order to convert this criterion to an equation relating the equilibrium concentrations of the reactants and products, the chemical potentials are the essential intermediaries. At equilibrium, Eq 7.27 provides the equation where...

Golden Toad DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 28 Nov 2011 17:51:42 GMT

Golden Toad The golden toad was restricted to the cloud forest above the city of Monteverde in Costa Rica. It was last seen in 1989. Renata Cunha Golden Toad The golden toad was restricted to the cloud forest above the city of Monteverde in Costa Rica. It was last seen in 1989. Renata Cunha Scientific name Bufo periglenes Scientific classification Phylum Chordata Class Amphibia Order Anura Family Bufonidae When did it become extinct No golden toads have been seen since May 1989. Where did it...

Protecting fossil sites in China FossilIndustry

Sun, 27 Nov 2011 23:27:53 GMT

China has always valued its heritage, yet measures to protect its fossil heritage have only been in place since the early 1960s. I asked Professor Zhu Min, current Director of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoan-thropology, for his views on Chinese laws pertaining to fossil protection. He replied by email on 9 April 2002 First, I would like to point out that all Chinese vertebrate fossils for sale in the international fossil markets are illegal according to the Chinese law....

THE MAJOR EXTINCTIONS AND THEIR CAUSES CambrianOrdovician DisappearedSpecies

Fri, 25 Nov 2011 20:21:49 GMT

Geologists use a series of extinction events that occurred around 490 million years ago to define the end of the Cambrian period and the beginning of the Ordovician. These events led to the demise of many types of marine animal. The brachiopods marine mol-lusks resembling bivalves were very numerous before this event, but whatever occurred all that time ago had a drastic effect on their numbers. The trilobites, ancient forerunners of today's numerous creepy crawlies, could also be found in...

Standard Free Energy of Formation Thermodynamics

Thu, 24 Nov 2011 13:39:48 GMT

Even though the thermochemical database need contain only AGo or, equivalently, AHo and ASo , the number of reactions that would have to be included in such a compilation is intractably large. The key to reducing data requirements to manageable size is to provide the standard free energy changes of forming the individual molecular species from their constituent elements. Particular reactions are constructed from these so-called formation reactions. For molecular compounds containing two or more...

Ql t T J Ql TT Thermodynamics

Thu, 24 Nov 2011 03:30:31 GMT

Since temperatures are always positive, and since the initial restriction was T1 gt T2, the above equation shows that Q2, must be positive. That is, the direction of heat flow is from the hot body to the cold body. The above application of the Second Law may seem needlessly formal, but a more challenging analysis of the process depicted in Fig. 1.16 is the following. If the initial state of the isolated system is T1 gt T2, what is the final common equilibrium temperature of the two systems what...

Solving for the Equilibrium Composition Thermodynamics

Tue, 22 Nov 2011 19:47:57 GMT

The law of mass action for a particular reaction Eq 9.24 is but a single equation with more than one variable. As an example, Eq 9.21a contains three unknown mole fractions. There are two principal methods for incorporating the conservation equations into the analysis the element conservation method and the reaction progress variable method. Both of these methods require the following input information The temperature and total pressure AHo and ASo of the reaction This information fixes KP by...

s k log W Thermodynamics

Wed, 16 Nov 2011 20:11:10 GMT

Implicit in Boltzmann's equation is the Third law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of crystalline solids is zero at 0 Kelvin. This due to the perfectly-ordered arrangement of the atoms and the cessation of their vibration. The W in Boltzmann's equation Fig. 1.6 is the number of ways that a large number of indistinguishable particles can be arranged. If all atoms in the solid are in their equilibrium positions and their lowest vibrational state, only one arrangement is possible,...

Chapter Werewolves Not Just in Transylvania Mythology

Wed, 16 Nov 2011 17:09:07 GMT

Werewolves have been a fear of humankind since the Neolithic age and may have originated in the shamanic rituals that seemingly transformed men into wolf-like creatures. During the Middle Ages, legends of the werewolf expanded into tales of daily occurrences. There are places in the world that even today the werewolf remains a feared creature that decimates livestock and threatens the lives of local inhabitants. The interesting thing about the folklore surrounding the werewolf is that, like the...

Stability diagrams Thermodynamics

Mon, 14 Nov 2011 22:01:46 GMT

Equations 9.33a and 9.33b are plotted in Fig. 9.6. These plots are called stability diagrams because the lines separate regions in which only one of the two phases is present. The line represents the p - T combinations where both the metal and its oxide coexist. The oxide-metal stability diagram is similar to the p-T phase diagram of a single substance such as water, where lines separate existence regions of solid, liquid, and vapor phases see Figs. 5.1 and 5.3 . The zones above and below the...

Info Bcc Thermodynamics

Thu, 10 Nov 2011 07:55:32 GMT

For T lt 553 K v x 10s U8 - 2.0 x 103T 3.42 xl T2 h 130 4.99 T - 293 - 2.95 x lO- T1 - 2931 3.1 x W3- 2933 s 0.28 4.9907293 - 5.9 x HH T - 293 4.7 x lO fF - 293J Note The last row in each table gives saturation values. Example The coefficient of compressibility at 240 C 513 K between 5 and 10 MPa is determined from the numerical entries in the 5 MPa and 10 MPa subtables Because v x 103 is given to only three significant figures, the above value of 0 is not very accurate. Using values from the...

A famous German fossil site FossilIndustry

Thu, 03 Nov 2011 00:32:56 GMT

Saturday 15 September. Steve calls Broome Prison again, but Michael Latham still isn't available. We visit the famous Messel fossil quarry near Darmstadt. One of the world's most important sites, the 49-million-year-old oil shales of Messel, preserves a great diversity of insects, plants, fishes, frogs, reptiles, mammals and birds. The preservation of these fossils is truly extraordinary and like no other site on Earth. The mammals often have their fur preserved, stomach contents intact, even...

European LandMammal Ages Age of Mammals

Wed, 26 Oct 2011 00:31:19 GMT

As mentioned earlier, standard ages are more widely used for biochronology of European faunas than are the European Land-Mammal Ages ELMAs , and are therefore used in this text. This preference for the former may have come about because the ELMAs are for the most part equivalent in time to the standard ages Dano-Montian Danian Cernaysian Selandian and Thanetian Neustrian most of the Ypresian Rhenanian the rest of the Ypre-sian through the Bartonian and Headonian Priabonian McKenna and Bell,...

Isentropic process Thermodynamics

Mon, 17 Oct 2011 19:30:35 GMT

Isentropic expansion of an ideal gas was treated in Sect. 3.5. Here, the same process is analyzed without the restriction of ideality. Equation 6.23b is divided by dv while holding s constant, which produces the relation To illustrate the effect of gas nonideality on property changes during an isentropic expansion, the right hand side of Eq 6.30 is evaluated for a Van der Waals gas obeying the equation of state in the form given by Eq 2.5 Substituting the above EOS into Eq 6.28 yields In the...

Heat Capacities Thermodynamics

Thu, 13 Oct 2011 22:55:14 GMT

Subtracting Eq 6.23b from Eq 6.24b gives Dividing by dv and holding p constant gives Inverting the partial derivative on the left hand side yields For an ideal gas, the product of T and the two partial derivatives is equal to the gas constant. For nonideal gases, on the other hand, the two heat capacities can differ significantly from R see problem 6.8 . For condensed phases, the first partial derivative in Eq 6.25 is replaced by av and the second by Eq 6.8 , yielding For solids or liquids with...

Thermodynamic Relations for Nonideal Behavior Thermodynamics

Tue, 11 Oct 2011 20:42:01 GMT

In Chapters 2 and 3, numerous property relations were presented for ideal gas and idealized solids. The latter are characterized by constant coefficients of thermal expansion and compressibility and obey the equation of state given by Eq 2.18 . For these substances, the specific heats and hence the internal energy and enthalpy are functions of temperature but are independent of pressure or specific volume the entropy of the ideal gas varies with T and v or p according to Eqs 3.9 and 3.10 . The...

Info Bqw Thermodynamics

Mon, 10 Oct 2011 04:26:38 GMT

Fig. 1.1 Kelvin and the gas thermometer Work in a mechanical sense was a well-known concept very early in history. Perhaps the most fundamental form of work is that done against or by gravity in raising or lowering weights. Other devices that produce or accept work include springs, piston cylinders, moving an object against a resisting force, turbines, electrons moving in a electric potential gradient and muscle contraction. Heat, however, is none of these and cannot be classified as work....

Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Mon, 03 Oct 2011 04:55:03 GMT

The equal sign in Eq 9.5 signifies that the equilibrium state has been achieved. By convention, the molecular species on the left-hand side of the reaction are called reactants and those on the right hand side are termed products. At equilibrium, there is no fundamental distinction between reactants and products Eq 9.5 could just as well have been written with C and D on the left and A and B on the right. As long as the element ratios are the same, the equilibrium composition does not depend on...

Chemical Potentials in Gas Mixtures Thermodynamics

Sat, 01 Oct 2011 18:11:25 GMT

The analysis in Sect. 7.2.2 of the entropy change associated with mixing of ideal gases at fixed T and p was based on the absence of an entropy change if the pure gases are at the partial pressures that they will have in the mixture. Since the gases are ideal, neither is there an enthalpy change in the mixing process. With both the enthalpy and entropy of each species unaltered, the Gibbs free energy must also remain constant during this mode of mixing. Since the partial molar Gibbs free energy...

Info Srf Mitochondria

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 09:38:30 GMT

How life began on Earth is one of the most exhilarating fields of science today a wild west of ideas, theories, speculations, and even data. It is too large a subject to embark on in detail here, so I will limit myself to a few observations on the importance of chemiosmotics. But for perspective let me paint a quick picture of the problem. The evolution of life depends in very large measure on the power of natural selection and this in turn depends on the inheritance of characteristics that can...

Heidelberg man Amphibians

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 09:37:06 GMT

Advanced human remains from the middle Pleistocene of Africa and Europe in rocks dated from 0.8 to 0.4 Myr ago have suggested that the species Homo heidelbergen-sis, established in 1907 for a jawbone from Germany, might be a valid species. English remains consist of a tibia and some teeth Roberts et al., 1994 , associated with Acheulean tools. These perhaps indicate a unique radiation of humans in the mid-Pleistocene of Europe that were more derived than H. erectus, but ancestral to the...

Timing Of The Crowntherian Radiation Age of Mammals

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 08:41:50 GMT

The question of when the therian radiation took place is a contentious issue, whose answer depends on the kind of data employed paleontological morphological or molecular. There are three principal models of the timing of origin and diversification of placental mammals Archibald and Deutschman, 2001 , which also apply generally to the therian radiation Fig. 1.2 1. The explosive model, in which mammalian orders both originated and diversified in a short period of about 10 million years after the...

Herbivory in arthropods Paleobiology 2

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 07:33:20 GMT

Most of our knowledge of herbivory in arthropods comes from coprolites, feeding marks on leaves and other plant parts, wood borings sometimes containing coprolites , and inferences based on comparisons of fossils with their living counterparts. Plant-bearing arthropod coprolites are oval to cylindrical in shape and can be as much as 1 mm long, although most are smaller. Those that have been analysed contain the remains of various plant parts e.g. leaves, stems, spores, pollen derived from a...

Methods for the study of paleosols Paleoanthropology

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 07:33:14 GMT

Just as soil individuals pedons are studied as soil columns in soil pits, paleosols are studied in columnar stratigraphic sections of the sort also used in sedimen-tology and stratigraphy O Figure 13.3 . Grain size is emphasized because it is important to soil formation, as weathering transforms sand and silt grains to clay. A graphical representation of grain size profiles conveys important information on the abruptness of horizon transitions. Color from a Munsell chart should also be...

Scats Wombats

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 06:15:40 GMT

Soon after leaving the vicinity of the burrow, the wombat usually deposits the first of the many heaps of scats it will produce during the night. Figure 5.6 The chest and belly are often groomed while the wombat lies on its back. Illustration Peter Schouten Figure 5.6 The chest and belly are often groomed while the wombat lies on its back. Illustration Peter Schouten In bare-nosed wombats, where and how they are deposited depend on the wombat's age. An immature animal - one less than two years...

Info Flg Thermodynamics

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 04:14:00 GMT

state of the system Fig.1.18 Equilibrium conditions for certain restraints In the left-hand sketch, the state of the system might be temperature nonuniformity inside the impervious boundary. Or, it could be an unequal distribution of the material within the boundary, as illustrated in the example of Fig. 1.17. Off-equilibrium states in the right-hand diagram most often represent a chemically reactive mixture that has not attained chemical equilibrium. In a multiphase system, additional...

Continental Drift 1 EarthquakeSeismology

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 03:53:13 GMT

Although the theory of the new global tectonics, or plate tectonics, has largely been developed since 1967, the history of ideas concerning a mobilist view of the Earth extends back considerably longer Rupke, 1970 Hallam, 1973a Vine, 1977 Frankel, 1988 . Ever since the coastlines of the continents around the Atlantic Ocean were first charted, people have been intrigued by the similarity of the coastlines of the Americas and of Europe and Africa. Possibly the first to note the similarity and...

Tarpan DisappearedSpecies

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 03:50:29 GMT

Tarpan A pair of tarpan stallions fight during the breeding season. This hardy animal is widely considered to be the ancestor of most modern horses. Renata Cunha Tarpan A pair of tarpan stallions fight during the breeding season. This hardy animal is widely considered to be the ancestor of most modern horses. Renata Cunha Scientific name Equus ferus Scientific classification Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Perissodactyla Family Equidae When did it become extinct The last known pure-bred...

Materials EarlyEvolution

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 03:48:45 GMT

The primary data analyzed in this study derive from collections housed at the National Museums of Kenya and the National Museum of Ethiopia. The published record of fossil mammals from the Turkana Basin has been compiled into a database that uses FileMaker Pro software Bobe and Behrensmeyer, 2007 . The Turkana Basin Paleontology Database currently has about 16,500 records of fossil mammals from geological formations on both sides of Lake Turkana that span in time from the late Miocene to the...

Discussion Paleoecology

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 03:27:08 GMT

Although patterns of relationship shared among populations of a single species should not be used to draw general biogeographic conclusions Brooks and McLennan 1991 , area relationships in A. plicata can be instructive if compared with results of other codistributed species to consider more general biogeographic patterns, patterns of phylogeographic association, and thus also patterns of ecological interaction over long periods of time. To do this, it is necessary to assume that the populations...

Clastbearing Dikes Formed by Injection ImpactCraters

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 03:18:22 GMT

The most widespread group of injected dikes forms at the excavation stage during the transient cavity growth and radial tension of its floor. In the true crater floor two varieties of such dikes may be distinguished a DI -impactite dikes impact melt matrix , and, 2 DM - mylolisthenite from Greek myle - mill, and olistainein - to slide, Rondot 1994 and polymict lithic breccia dikes matrix composed of clastic material, which is fluidal in the case of mylolisthenite , but some transitional types...

A Tripartite Organization of the Insect and Chordate Brain Natural Selection 4

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 02:56:01 GMT

The conserved expression and function of otd Otx and Hox genes suggest that invertebrate and vertebrate brains are all characterized by a rostral region specified by genes of the otd Otx family and a caudal region specified by genes of the Hox family. However, in ascidians and vertebrates, a Pax2 5 8 expression domain is located between the anterior Otx and the posterior Hox expression regions of the embryonic brain Holland and Holland, 1999 Wada and Satoh, 2001 . In vertebrate brain...

Discriminating between brachiopods and bivalves FossilClassification

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 02:50:40 GMT

Brachiopods look superficially very similar to bivalves Chapter 9 , with both organisms having two shells, usually made from calcite and frequently ornamented with radial ribs. This similarity is the consequence of sharing a similar lifestyle most species of each group are sessile filter feeders living in the shallow marine environment. As such they represent an example of evolutionary convergence. There is a simple way to distinguish between almost all brachiopods and bivalves, related to...

Temporal Fossa Size HumanOrigins

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 02:02:02 GMT

This character is used to measure independently the relative degree of temporalis development, regardless of parietal temporal bone size. It is distinct from sagittal crest development, which will be correlated directly with the size of these bones, relative to muscle development. For example, a small cranium with moderate to strong temporalis development e.g., species of P. robustus will require the formation of a temporal crest to help expand the attachment space requirements of the...

Major Events in the History of Life Paleobiology 2

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 01:40:37 GMT

1.1.1 Origin of Life, 3 a. lazcano 1.1.2 Exploring for a Fossil Record of Extraterrestrial Life, 8 1.1.3 Life in the Archaean, 13 r.buick 1.1.4 Late Proterozoic Biogeochemical Cycles, 22 1.2.1 Metazoan Origins and Early Evolution, 25 d.h. erwin 1.2.2 Significance of Early Shells, 31 s. conway morris 1.2.3 Cambrian Food Webs, 40 n.j. butterfield 1.2.4 The Origin of Vertebrates, 43 m.p. smith and i.j. sansom 1.3.1 Ordovician Radiation, 49 a.i. miller 1.3.2 Rise of Fishes, 52 j.a. long 1.3.3...

Land plant classification FossilClassification

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 01:38:30 GMT

A classification of land plants is given in Table 12.1. Informal groupings are used in this scheme. As an artificial classification it provides a working description of plant diversity rather than an explanation of the evolutionary relationships. Some of the groups are unnatural, for example seed ferns incorporates the seed plants that are not included in the other groups. Land plants are separated into those with a vascular system and those without. There are three important groups of...

What Are The Fossil Classification Of Man FossilClassification

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 01:28:06 GMT

Acanthodian lightly armored, jawed fish characterized by fins supported by a frontal spine. Acheulian tool suite associated with Homo erectus. Actinopterygian ray-finned, bony fish, including most modern fish. Anapsid primitive reptiles represented by modern turtles and tortoises. There are no holes in the skull behind the eye. Articular lower jaw bone in reptiles that articulates with the upper jaw, and an ear bone in mammals. Chondrichthyan group of fish characterized by a cartilaginous...

Bee Bombs And Wasp Warheads Ants 2

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 00:59:20 GMT

The first era of entomological warfare saw insects drafted into battle to directly afflict the enemy. More sophisticated tactics of transmitting diseases and destroying crops would have to wait for breakthroughs in human knowledge. However, we shouldn't disparage the cleverness of ancient peoples. After all, they laid the foundations for modern weaponry and insects were the first organisms used to wage biological warfare. The military historian John T. Ambrose contends that insects have long...

Transitions Leading Up To The Archontan And Euprimate Locomotor Strategies And Substrate Preference PlacentalMammals

Tue, 27 Sep 2011 00:19:58 GMT

I will not belabor the platitude that the postcranial record of Mesozoic eutherian or other mammals is still relatively poor, and that such a state of affairs makes for very tentative conclusions regarding locomotor adaptations in the stems of various higher taxa within the Eutheria, Metatheria, and Theria the latter restricted here to the concept of monophyletically tri-bosphenic mammals . There is certainly overwhelming evidence that the extant Metatheria had a specifically arboreal ancestry,...

Info Jki DefiningDinosaurs

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 23:48:04 GMT

is held together by cement that was chemically precipitated, or by a fine-grained matrix of broken rock material. Depending on the rate of lithification, the processes involved in the formation of a rock from sediment, this consolidation can occur within a few years or over the course of millions of years. Sedimentary rocks are varied and are classified on the basis of their composition types of minerals and the texture size, shape, and arrangement of the sediment and associated cement or...

Pigfooted Bandicoot DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 23:30:09 GMT

Scientific name Chaeropus ecaudatus Scientific classification Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Peramelemorphia Family Chaeropodidae When did it become extinct The last verifiable specimen was collected in 1901, but it probably survived in remote areas for far longer, possibly until the 1950s. Where did it live This marsupial was known only from the plains of inland Australia. Pig-Footed Bandicoot The pig-footed bandicoot was a small, fleet-footed marsupial from the plains of Australia. Phil...

The Earliest Tool Users and Toolmakers and Early Hominin Behavior HumanOrigins

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 23:22:15 GMT

Recognizable stone tools first appear in the archaeological record around 2.5 Ma in east Africa they are associated with two hominin groups, Paranthropus and early Homo see Susman, 1988 Schick amp Toth, 1993 Kimbel et al., 1997 Deacon amp Deacon, 1999 Pickering, 2001 Figure 4.8 . These early stone tools are referred to as the Oldowan industry because they were first recognized from localities within Olduvai Gorge. So far the earliest stone tools are those found at the Gona and Bouri sites,...

K Xbn FossilPlants

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 23:14:12 GMT

Figure 7.16 Palynostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy of the Kiowa Core showing position of the K-T boundary at 993.85 0.05 ft 302.93 0.015 m and magnetic polarity subchrons identified depths in feet D1 and D2 sequence terminology after Raynolds 2002 . In the Kiowa Core, the uppermost 3 mm of the Cretaceous strata yielded a diverse, angiosperm-dominated assemblage from the Wodehouseia spinata Assemblage Zone that includes seven characteristically Maastrichtian species not found in the 3-mm...

Trilobite evolution FossilClassification

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 23:10:18 GMT

Trilobites were a major part of the marine benthos for over 250 million years. During all of that time their basic body plan remained the same, and the changes that did occur through evolution tended to be in details rather than in serious shifts of shape. This lack of innovation in a successful group is known as evolutionary conservatism. However, despite this, trilobites inhabited a wide range of niches and explored a wide range of marine environments from their evolutionary origins in the...

Woolly Rhinoceros DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 22:40:56 GMT

Woolly Rhinoceros The woolly rhinoceros was widespread throughout northern Europe and Asia until the end of the last glaciation. Phil Miller Woolly Rhinoceros The woolly rhinoceros was widespread throughout northern Europe and Asia until the end of the last glaciation. Phil Miller Scientific name Coelodonta antiquitatis Scientific classification Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Perissodactyla Family Rhinocerotidae When did it become extinct This rhinoceros is thought to have survived until...

The Dark Side of DAmino Acids Stereochemistry

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 21:47:22 GMT

Some D-amino acid enantiomers are associated with destructive and toxic effects for living organisms, in contrast to the above-presented desired deviant enantiomers. Consequently, biological organisms try to get rid of these enantiomers using various strategies. First of all, D-amino acids can be detected and eliminated by special proteins, called D-amino acid oxidases. Moreover, D-amino acids can be stored in deposits where they do not interfere with everyday metabolism Rein 1992 . In some...

Palate Prognathism Relative to Sellion HumanOrigins

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 21:42:17 GMT

This is calculated as an index of palate length divided by plate protrusion relative to sellion as defined by Rak 1983 see his Plate 34 and Table 3 . A prognathic premaxilla is defined by an index greater than 0.57 intermediate prognathism is between 0.30 and 0.57, and weak prognathism is an index less than 0.30. The mean indices for hominin taxa have been taken from Rak 1983 . All hominin and extant African ape allocations follow Strait et al. 1997 and Strait amp Grine 2001 , except for...

Exoplanetary Mass Function Detection of Exoplanets

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 21:16:05 GMT

Figure 6.5 shows a mass histogram representing all exoplanets as well as solid lines showing sub-samples of short, intermediate and long period exoplanets. All indicate a rise in the number of exoplanets per unit mass towards lower masses despite the selection bias toward finding heavier exoplanets. This overall distribution is similar to the mass function based on subsamples of the long-period and intermediate-period exoplanets. Also over-plotted on this graph for comparison is a dotted line...

Table Classification And Distribution Of Mesozoic Mammalian Families Origin of Mammals

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 20:01:42 GMT

Symbols for chronological distribution E, Early M. Middle L, Late T. Triassic RL. Rhieto-Liassk J. Jurassic C. Cretaceous. Symbols for g ographie distribution A. Alia Af, Africa E, Europe NA, North America SA, South America. Class Mammalia Prototherians Subclass Allotberia Order Multltuberculata Suborder Plmgiaulacoidea Paulchoffatiidae LJ-EC E PUgiaulacidae LJ-EC E LJ-EC NA EC A Suborder Ptilodontoldea Neoplagiauladdae LC NA Neoplagiaulacidae LC A. NA Ptilodontidae LC NA Cimolodontidae LC NA...

Flores Human DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 19:40:06 GMT

Scientific name Homo floresiensis Scientific classification Flores Human Here a female Homofloresiensis, barely 1 m tall, walks back to her group's cave with a large rodent she has killed. Phil Miller When did it become extinct The most recent remains of this hominid are 18,000 years old, but it is very possible that it survived well into historic times. Where did it live The bones of Flores man have only been found on the island of Flores, In 2004, a group of scientists revealed to the world...

Sediment chemistry Paleobiology 2

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 19:38:47 GMT

Non-biomineralized tissues display a spectrum of resistance to decay see Section 3.2.1 . At one end are robust structural tissues, such as arthropod cuticles and the seed coats and woody tissues of plants, which are decay resistant and may be incorporated into the fossil record as organic remains. At the other end are decay-prone tissues, such as muscle or gut, which degrade very rapidly they are only preserved when they are replicated very rapidly in authigenic minerals. Both organic and...

The zirconiumhydrogen phase diagram Thermodynamics

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 19:25:42 GMT

The Sieverts' law behavior illustrated in Fig. 9.9 does not increase the concentration of A indefinitely as pA increases. There is a limit that the metal can accept without precipitating a new phase. This limit is called the terminal solubility. At this limit additional gas in the solid ends up in forming a M-A compound called a hydride if A H, a nitride if A N, and an oxide of A O. This process is shown by the zirconium-hydrogen phase diagram in Fig. 9.9. The Zr-H system exhibits three...

T Oio Thermodynamics

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 18:26:02 GMT

5.9 The melting point of iodine is 113oC. The vapor pressures of the solid and liquid states are given by lnpsat A - B T DlnT, where Bs 8240, Bl 7381, Ds -2.51, Dl 5.18, As 34.16, and Al 47.83 a Calculate the triple point temperature and pressure of iodine. Why does this result differ from the reported melting temperature b Consider iodine vapor initially at 0.04 atm and 150oC. For the following processes, determine which condensed phase first appears and at what p and T. Sketch the p-T...

Info Vtp NeanderthalSociety

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 18:14:24 GMT

Figure 6.13 Multi-dimensional-scaling analysis of 33 Mousterian assemblages from southwestern France, from Mellars 1967. The assemblages represented are nos 1-4 Pech de l'Aze I layers 4, B, 6, 7 nos 5-6 Hauteroche lower, upper layers nos 7-10 Abri Chadourne layers A, B, C, D no. 11 L'Ermitage nos 12-14 Roc de Marsal layers 6,10,11 no. 15 Mas-Viel nos 16-18 Petit-Puymoyen cave, C2, breccia nos 19-33 Combe Grenal layers 11,14,17, 20, 22, 23, 26, 27, 29, 33,35,38, 50, 52. MTA Type B are separated...

Preservation Potential And Some Ancient Analogues Astrobiology

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 17:58:15 GMT

As most of the organic matter produced by the cyanobacteria is soon decomposed and mineralized so that organic components or even carbon are rarely preserved in the ancient siliciclastic record, preservation of mat-related structures is largely dependent on the volume of inorganic material present in the mat or trapped by the structure. A major process to introduce silt- to sand-sized sediment grains into the mat is 'trapping and binding' as described before. In the same way, clay minerals may...

Class Scaphopoda Paleobiology

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 17:35:42 GMT

Scaphopods are generally rare as fossils. The Scaphopoda, or elephant-tusk shells, have a single, slightly curved high conical shell, open at both ends Fig. 13.25a . They lack gills and eyes, but have a mouth equipped with a radula and surrounded by tentacles they also possess a foot, similar to that of the bivalves, adapted for burrowing. Scaphopods are mainly carnivorous, feeding on small organisms such as foraminiferans and spending much of their life in quasi-infaunal positions within soft...

Venus Interruptus AlienLife

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 17:27:42 GMT

Modern planetary exploration rudely interrupted our age-old dreams of an Earth-like Venus. The high surface temperature on Venus was the first significant discovery ever made at another planet with a visiting spacecraft. Venus, a metal-melting furnace with a corrosive atmosphere and clouds so acidic they could etch glass, was declared off-limits to life. The romance was over. But planets seem to be like this every time we take a closer look, we see new sides to the place. Our understanding of...

Ca Buttes Myths Mythology

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 16:39:59 GMT

The legend of a mysterious tree-creature is part of the lore of the Maidu Indians living in Butte County in Northern California. Butte County, by the way, has had several reported sightings of Big Foot over the years. Anthropologist D.L. Spencer gave this account of the Chamlakhu Chamlakhu was an old man living in the trees, differing from human beings only in the fact that his hands and feet were armed with long bearlike claws. Although not known to commit injury, he was greatly feared. The...

Side scrapers NeanderthalSociety

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 16:33:05 GMT

Side scrapers alternatively known by the French term racloirs have always been seen as one of the most distinctive retouched tool forms in Middle Palaeolithic industries and in the earlier literature were often regarded as a diagnostic feature of these industries e.g. de Mortillet 1883 . In fact, typical side-scraper forms, effectively identical to those encountered in the Mousterian and related industries, are known to occur throughout the greater part of the Lower Palaeolithic sequence...

Two unusual Associated Artifacts in the Internal Context CulturalRemains

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 16:30:19 GMT

The first unusual case is that of Andy the Blockhead, a sideshow mummy who is displayed at Ripley's Believe it or Not Museum in New Orleans, Louisiana. We conducted a paleoimaging study on Andy prior to his debut Carnival Mummies 2003 . The initial AP and lateral skull radiographs showed that there appeared to be a common nail in the nasal passage of the mummy Figure 7.30 . A popular sideshow act was having an individual place objects deep into the nasopharynx giving the appearance that the...

Biodiversity today Paleobiology 2

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 15:39:30 GMT

Estimates of the present diversity of life range over at least an order of magnitude, from perhaps 2-3 million species at the lower end, to 30-100 million at the upper end. The lower estimates represent summaries of the number of species that have actually been documented. It is estimated May 1990 , for example, that some 1.7-1.8 million species of modern microbes, plants, and animals have been named so far by systematists, and that figure must be a minimum estimate of current biodiversity....

references Chj ProteinEngineering

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 15:22:14 GMT

Barbas, C. F., D. Hu, N. Dunlop, L. Sawyer, D. Cababa, et al. 1994. In vitro evolution of a neutralizing human antibody to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to enhance affinity and broaden strain cross-reactivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 3809-13. Barbas, C. F., J. D. Bain, D. M. Hoekstra and R. A. Lerner. 1992. Semisynthetic combinatorial antibody libraries A chemical solution to the diversity problem. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 4457-61. Bessette, P. H., M. A. Mena, A. W. Nguyen and P....

B Obq Astrobiology

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 13:50:58 GMT

Figure 5. A Field photo of Zavarzin Pool. B Filamentous cyanobacteria positive for chlorophyll-a autofluorescence . C Mineral grains 1 bound by biological material 2 . Figure 5. A Field photo of Zavarzin Pool. B Filamentous cyanobacteria positive for chlorophyll-a autofluorescence . C Mineral grains 1 bound by biological material 2 . photo-trophic mats have developed along the floor of the outflow channel, and their silicification preserves several distinct sinter fabrics along the length of...

Stephens Island Wren DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 13:47:09 GMT

Scientific name Xenicus lyalli Scientific classification Family Acanthisittidae When did it become extinct This small bird is thought to have become extinct in 1894. Where did it live The wren was found only on Stephens Island, New Zealand. Island wren into extinction. Renata Cunha Island wren into extinction. Renata Cunha Rising to heights of around 300 m, Stephens Island looms off the northernmost tip of Marlborough Sound on South Island of New Zealand. The island is tiny 2.6 km2 , but it is...

William Prout HydrogenAtom

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 13:22:11 GMT

Hydrogen seems almost aware of its illustrious history, for the atom behaves in a regal fashion. All of us, from infant to most senior, are aware of the world around us. The breadth and depth of this awareness varies dramatically from person to person, but the same world is there for all to observe. When we look not only with our eyes, but also with our minds and souls, we can see very different worlds. For example, we might interpret the world as diverse each face in a throng of people is...

Feral Cats InvasiveSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 13:09:42 GMT

The FWC estimates there are between 6.3 and 9.6 million feral cats Felis catus in Florida at http www.floridaconservation.org , which, conservatively, kill millions of small animals in Florida each year FCIT 2003 . Feral cats are generally harmful to native fauna throughout the state, because even cats well-maintained as pets take a high toll of nearby small animals Churcher and Lawton 1987, Lepcyzk et al. 2003, Woods et al. 2003 , especially considering cats continue to hunt and kill when not...

Pow Hpd Mammals

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 12:51:18 GMT

Figure 1.1. Standards of measurement for upper A and lower B molars. ANW, anterior width L, length POW, posterior width. Line drawings based on Atokatheridium boreni. Formation, suggest that the Paluxy Formation correlates with the lower Albian Jacobs and Winkler, 1998 . Many sites in the Trinity Group of Texas and Oklahoma have yielded fossil vertebrates, mainly fishes and reptiles e.g., Langston, 1974 Thurmond, 1974 . The Twin Mountains and Paluxy formations are litho-logically similar, so...

Multiple Lens Systems Detection of Exoplanets

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 12:47:56 GMT

The lens equation for a multiple lens system is a straight forward generalization of the single lens equation, eq. 3.4, but with more than one lens mass, we can no longer assume that the source, observer and lens system all lie in a single plane. However, as long as the distances to the lens and source DL and DS are much larger than the extent of the lens system, we can assume that the lens system resides a single distance, and define the Einstein radius of the total lens system mass using eq....

Glyptodont DisappearedSpecies

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 12:29:42 GMT

Glyptodont The glyptodonts huge, domed carapace made it almost invulnerable to predators. Natural History Museum at Tring Glyptodont The glyptodonts huge, domed carapace made it almost invulnerable to predators. Natural History Museum at Tring Glyptodont Even if a predator was stupid enough to attack an adult glyptodont, its lashing tail could inflict some serious injury. Natural History Museum at Tring Glyptodont Even if a predator was stupid enough to attack an adult glyptodont, its lashing...

Scopidae Hamerkop Balaenicipitidae Shoebill and Pelecanidae Pelicans FossilBirds

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 11:46:48 GMT

The Scopidae include a single African species and have no Paleogene fossil record. The Balaenicipitidae likewise contain a sole extant representative, the Shoebill Balaeniceps rex , which lives in remote swamps of east-central Africa. The only Paleogene fossil species that was assigned to the taxon is Goliathia andrewsi Lambrecht, 1930 from the Jebel Qatrani Formation of Egypt Rasmussen et al. 1987 . This species is known from an ulna, which lacks exact stratigraphic data, and a referred...

The WilsonDevinney Program Extensions and Applications Astophysics

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 11:14:55 GMT

Since the Wilson-Devinney program is the most widely used of all the light curve modeling tools, it is appropriate to describe its features, capabilities, and continuing development in some detail. The WD program itself has seen continual improvements, and the current version briefly summarized in Chap. 6 with its powerful features provides the opportunity to extract a maximum of information from a variety of observational data. As a side-effect, publications on the WD model and on the WD...

List of abbreviations Plastids

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 10:23:51 GMT

RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism Rubisco ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase SSC small single copy region SSU small subunit ycf hypothetical chloroplast reading frame

Ii Prebiotic Photochemistryuv And Oceanic Photochemistry Evolution of Elements

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 09:40:05 GMT

The lack of oxygen, and thus of ozone, in the prebiotic atmosphere allowed the full spectrum gt 180 nm of sunlight to penetrate to the oceans Figure 1 . Liquid water absorbs strongly at wavelengths less than 180 nm. Ions such as chloride, sulfate, and phosphate are thus protected, but anions such as Br- and I- would absorb this plentiful UV, forming reactive oxidizing radicals and solvated electrons for details see Mauzerall 1992a, 1995, and Table 1 . The quantum yields are gt 0.1 but less than...

Historical Background Age of Mammals

Mon, 26 Sep 2011 08:56:53 GMT

Not so long ago, Mesozoic mammals were assigned to a relatively small number of higher taxa, whose relationships seemed more or less understood. According to this Table 4.1. Synoptic classification of Mesozoic mammals excluding Metatheria and Eutheria fAdelobasileus, fHadrocodium1 fSinoconodontidae fKuehneotheriidae Order fMORGANUCODONTA fMorganucodontidae fMegazostrodontidae Order fDOCODONTA Order fSHUOTHERIDIA Order fEUTRICONODONTA fAmphilestidae fTriconodontidae fAustrotriconodontidae Order...